Individual Differences in Working Memory

Map Branches

• 1. Introduction
  • History
    • Origins
      • Wilhelm Wundt
    • Modern
      • Behaviorist vs. Cognitive
      • Information Processing
        • Mental/Computer Comparision
        • Mental Processes interpreted as series of stages through a system
        • Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
          • Series of discrete steps
            • Sensory Memory
              • iconic (visual)
              • echoic (auditory)
            • Short-term memory (Working Memory)
            • Long-term memory
  • Current Issues
    • Challenges
      • No unified theory
      • ecological validity
    • Cognitive Neuroscience
      • Brain Lesions
      • Positron Emission Tomography
      • Single-Photon Emission-Computed Tomography (SPECT)
      • CAT Computerized Axial Tomography
      • Functional MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
      • Event-Related Potential
      • Single-Cell Technique
    • Artificial Intelligence
  • Textbook Overview
• 2. Perceptual Processes: Visual and Auditory Recognition
• 3. Perceptual Processes: Attention and Consciousness
• 4. Working Memory
  • Classic Research on Working Memory
    • George Miller's "Magical Number Seven'
      • Chunk
    • Early Research
      • Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique
      • Recency Effect
        • serial position effect
    • Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model
      • control processes
    • Other Factors Affecting Working Memory's Capacity
      • Pronounciation Time
      • Semantic Similarity of the Items in Working Memory
        • Proactive Interference (PI)
  • Working-Memory Approach
    • Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities
    • Phonological Loop
      • Other Research
      • Other Uses
    • Visuospacial Sketchpad
      • Visual Coding in Working Memory
      • Other Uses
      • Neuroscience Research
    • Central Executive
      • Characteristics
      • Central Executive and Daydreaming
      • Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive
    • Episodic Buffer
    • Individual Differences in Working Memory
      • Working Memory and Verbal Fluency
      • Working Memory and other Cognitive Skills
      • Working Memory and Memory Experts
• 5. Long-Term Memory
• 6. Memory Strategies and Metacognition
  • Memory Strategies
    • Previous Chapters
      • Levels of Processing
        • Deep rather than shallow
        • rich, elaborate encoding
        • rehersal/repeating is poor
        • summarize
        • analyze
        • maintain journal (mindmap?)
        • Self-reference effect
          • personal experience
      • Encoding Specificity
        • context at encoding match context of retrieval
      • Over-Confidence
        • flashbulb memory errors
      • Divided Attention
        • divided attention reduces memory
        • Extroverts - quiet background music "okay"
        • Introverts - background music distracts
    • Practice
      • Total Time Hypothesis
        • More time = better memory
        • Quality time matters (deep encoding)
        • Improves current area of study, not over-all memory ability
      • Distribtion of Practice Effect
        • learn over time
    • Mnemonics Using Imagery
      • Keyword Method
        • Familiar word + Image
      • Method of Loci
        • 1. Visualize series of places you know
        • 2. make up image for items you want to remember
        • 3. Associate image with place
        • "Memory rooms"
    • Mnemonics Using Organization
      • Chunking
        • Small units into larger
      • Hierarchy Techique
        • classes
        • outlines
        • Mindmaps!!
      • First-Letter Technique
        • ROY G. BIV (example)
      • Narrative Technique
        • Story-telling
    • Improving Prospective Memory
      • Prospective\Retrospective Memory
        • Prospective
          • Future intent
          • Future execution
        • Retrospective
          • recall of past
      • Naturalistic Research on Prospective Memory
      • Absentmindedness
        • Divided attention often plays a role
        • long-standing habit can over-ride prospective-memory task
      • Improving
        • imagery
        • external memory aid
    • Comprehensive Approach to Memory Improvement
      • Hermann
        • Multi-model approach
          • Modes/Factors
          • Physical
          • Psychological
          • Use multiple strategies
      • Langer
        • Mindfullness
        • use new techniques/resources
  • Metacognition
    • Metamemory and Prediction of Performance
      • Item-by-Item Basis
        • People are fairly accurate in predictions
        • Wait before judging what you may need to study
      • Total-Score Basis
        • People are generally over-confident
        • Lowest percentie is less accurate at prediction
    • Metamemory Factors Affecting Performance
    • Regulation of Study Strategies
      • Time when task is easy
      • Time when task is difficult
      • Conclusions
    • Tip-of-Tougue
      • Brown and McNeill's Classic Research
      • Later Research
      • Feeling of Knowing
    • Metacomprehension
      • Accuracy
      • Improving
• 7. Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps
  • Mental Images
    • Imagery and Rotation
      • Shepard and Metzler's Research
      • Recent Research
    • Imagery and Size
      • Kosslyn's Research
      • Recent Research
    • Imagery and Shape
    • Imagery and Interferance
      • Visual Images and Visual Perception
      • Motor Movement and Motor Images
    • Images and Ambiguous Figures
    • Imagery and other Vision-Like Processes
    • Revisiting the Image Controversy
      • Analog Viewpoint
      • Propositional Viewpoint
  • Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Imagery
    • Visual Imagery
    • Auditory and Motor Imagery
  • Cognitive Maps
    • Background Information
    • Cognitive Maps and Distance
      • Number of Intervening Cities
      • Sementic Categories
      • Landmarks vs. Nonlandmarks as Destinations
    • Cognitive Maps and Shape
      • Angles
      • Curves
    • Cognitive Maps and Relative Position
      • Rotation Huerisitc
      • Alignment Heristic
    • Verbal Descriptions to Create Cogitive Maps
      • Franklin and Tversjy
      • Spatial Framework Model
      • Further Research on Mental Models
• 8. General Knowledge
  • Structure of Semantic Memory
  • Schemas and Scripts
• 9. Language: Introduction and Comprehension
  • Nature of Language
  • Basic Reading Process
  • Understanding Discourse
• 10. Language: Production and Bilingualism
  • Speaking
  • Writing
  • Biligualism and Second-Language Acquisition
• 11. Problem Solving and Creativity
  • Understanding the Problem
  • Problem-Solving Strategies
  • Factors Influencing Problem Solving
  • Creativity
• 12. Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making
  • Deductive Reasoning
  • Decision-Making
• 13. Cognitive Development Throughout Lifespan
  • Lifespan Development of Memory
  • Lifespan Development of Metacognition
  • Development of Language
• Themes:
  • 1. Cognitive Processes are Active rather than passive
  • 2. Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate
  • 3. Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information
  • 4. Cognitive processses are interrelatted to one another, they do not operate in isolation
  • 5. Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing

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